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| Religious discrimination and persecution |
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| By victimized group
Anti-clericalism |
| By method
Censorship · Desecration |
| Historical events
Inquisition · French Wars of Religion |
Religious persecution is systematic mistreatment of an individual or group due to their religious affiliation.
The tendency of societies to alienate or repress different subcultures is a recurrent theme in human history. Moreover, because a person\'s religion often determines to a significant extent his or her morality and personal identity, religious differences can be significant cultural factors. Particularly (but not exclusively) in cases where the person\'s religion fails to emphasize a love and tolerance for all humanity, he or she may fall into the trap of considering practitioners of another religion as amoral or inferior.[citation needed] At a societal level, this dehumanization of a particular religious group may readily turn into violence or other forms of persecution. Even those who consider religiosity in general to be declining (i.e. those believe secularization is progressing) would agree that religious persecution continues to be a serious issue worldwide. Global media coverage of increasing numbers of participants in religious fundamentalism and religiously related terrorism obviate the prevalence of such persecutions worldwide. Indeed, in many countries of the world today, religious persecution has resulted in so much violence that it is considered a human rights problem.
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A situation in which religious persecution occurs is the opposite of freedom of religion. However, freedom of religion is not necessarily identical with the separation of church and state and religious pluralism. In a country that is not a a secular state, freedom of religion can exist if the state religion grants religious toleration to all other religions and denominations.
Often it is the alleged persecution of individuals within a group in the attempt to maintain their religion identity, or the exercise of power by an individual or organization that causes members of a religious group to suffer. Persecution in this case may refer to confiscation or destruction of property, incitement to hate, arrest, imprisonment, beatings, torture, and execution.
Denial of benefits and denial of certain civil rights and liberties are less severe, and are either described as mild forms of religious persecution or as religious discrimination. There clearly is a difference between denying a religious group tax-exempt status and threatening them with imprisonment.
Other acts of violence, such as war, torture, and ethnic cleansing might not necessarily be aimed at religion. Populations that belong to different ethnic groups often also belong to different religions or denominations. Although the difference between religious and ethnical identity might sometimes be obscure (see: Ethnoreligious), the infamous cases of Genocide of the 20th century could not be explained by religious differences.Still, cases such as the Pontic tragedy, the Armenian Genocide, the Assyrian Genocide or the current Darfur conflict (see: Janjaweed)[citation needed] are sometimes seen as religious persecution.
The most infamous case of anti-Semitism in the 20th century, the systematic mass murder of millions of European Jews by the Nazis, was not religious persecution, since the Nazis persecuted the Jews as a race, not as a religion. The Shoah made no distinction between secular Jews, atheistic Jews, orthodox Jews and Jews that had converted to Christianity. Only the persecution of Jehovah\'s Witnesses in Nazi Germany can be seen as religious persecution; About 12,000 of them were arrested. However, they were given the opportunity to renounce their faith and pledge to support the war in order to avoid being incarcerated..Hans Hesse (2001). Persecution and Resistance of Jehovah\'s Witnesses During the Nazi Regime, 9,10. For more information see the article Nazism and Religion.
The descriptive use of the term Religious persecution, applied to different periods in history, is rather difficult. For the obvious reason of the overabundance of material, contemporary historians generally avoid writing books on the whole of human history.
In a western context our now common rejection of religious persecution originated in 17th century England. The English \'Call for Toleration\' was the turning point in the Christian debate on religious persecution. Therefore it seems appropriate to focus on that period, if one wants to know why religious persecution has happened.
The most ambitious chronicle of that time is W.K.Jordans magnum opus The Development of Religious Toleration in England, 1558-1660 (four volumes, published 1932-1940). Jordan wrote as the thread of fascism rose in Europe, and this work is seen as a defence of the fragile values of humanism and tolerance.Coffey 2000, 2
From the 1640s onwards a vigorous debate about religious persecution took place in England. "The debate over persecution and toleration was a debate about what the civil magistrate ought to do about dissent."Coffey 2000, 11 Persecution meant that the state was committed to secure religious uniformity by coercive measures. During this time, Roger L\'Estrange stated: "That which you call persecution, I translate Uniformity".quoted after Coffey (2000), 27
The following reasons for which religious persecution has happened are taken from a recent study on the field.
Ecclesiastical tolerance concerned the degree of diversity tolerated within a particular church.John Coffey (2000), p. 12 In a secular state, ecclesiastical intolerance generally does not lead to religious persecution, since in a secular state a church usually does not have the power to enforce its beliefs (dogmas) on its members. Of course, in modern civil law any member of an organisation has the right to quit. However, secularization, understood as the separation of church and state, is a modern phenomenon. Before this process, people could hold a view similar to that of the Anglican theologian Richard Hooker: "there is not any man of the Church of England but the same man is also a member of the commonwealth; nor any man a member of the commonwealth, which is not also of the Church of England."The Works of Richard Hooker, II, p. 485; quoted after: John Coffey (2000), p. 33 Thus Christian theologians like Joseph Hall could reason from the ecclesiastical intolerance of the early Christian church in the New Testament to the civil intolerance of the Christian state.John Coffey (2000), p. 33
In Protestant England six people were executed for heresy or blasphemy during the reign of Elizabeth I of England, and two more in 1612 under James I of England. John Coffey (2000), p. 26
See also: Christian heresy, Heresy in Orthodox Judaism
More than 300 Roman Catholics were put to death by English governments between 1535 and 1681 for treason, thus for secular than religious offences. John Coffey (2000), p. 26 In 1570, Pope Pius V had issued the bull Regnans in Excelsis, which absolved Catholics from their obligations to the government. John Coffey (2000), p. 85 This dramatically worsened the situation of the Catholics in England. English governments continued to fear Popish Plot;
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Out of Egypt came monotheistic Judaism under Moses, its prophet. Among the Ten Commandments of the new religion was one that forbade the worship of any other god than its one true God. When Imperial Rome extended its reach to their area, various conflicts arose.
Out of Judaism came Christianity, which because it was strictly monotheistic and also encouraged conversion was a much more powerful threat to the established pantheistic order than had been Judaism. The Jewish exemption from the requirement to participate in public cults was lifted and the anti-monotheistic religious persecution of the Christians began under Nero.
By the eighth century Christianity had attained a clear ascendancy in Europe and neighboring regions and a period of consolidation began marked by the pursuit of heretics and various other forms of monotheistic religious persecution. Christian monotheistic religious persecution perhaps reached its apex with the Inquisition.
Meanwhile south and east of the Christian empires yet another monotheist religion had arisen: Islam. Generally following the Jewish tradition of tolerance towards non-believers provided they maintained the outward habits of believers, Muslims spread across northern Africa, the Middle East, northern India, and adjoining regions. Those who actively oppose Islam or try to persuade people in their community not to convert to Islam may face persecution or death threats (which may even be carried out). At times, attempts at peaceful persuasion against Islam have led to persecution.
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Religious discrimination · Religious persecution
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Since the 18th century there have been many occasions where religious persecution has occurred.
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It has been suggested that this article or section be merged with Religious freedom in Iran. (Discuss) |
The Bahá\'ís are a religious community deemed as heretic in Islam. An important element in Islam is the belief that Muhammad is the Seal of the prophets, and that there will be no other prophets after him. "This attitude serves to explain the extreme Muslim animosity toward Bahais,"www.bps.org: People of the book followers of Bahá\'u\'lláh (1844 - 1921), who they believe to be the most recent messenger from God.
Bahá\'ís and various third party entities such as the United Nations, Amnesty International, the European Union, the United States and peer-reviewed academic literature have stated that the members of the Bahá\'í community in Iran, the nation of origin of the Bahá\'í Faith, Iran\'s largest religious minority and the location of one of the largest Bahá\'í populations in the world, have been subjected to unwarranted arrests, false imprisonment, beatings, torture, unjustified executions, confiscation and destruction of property owned by individuals and the Bahá\'í community, denial of employment, denial of government benefits, denial of civil rights and liberties, and denial of access to higher education.
More recently, in the later months of 2005, an intensive anti-Bahá\'í campaign was conducted by Iranian newspapers and radio stations. The state-run and influential Kayhan newspaper, whose managing editor is appointed by Iran\'s supreme leader, Ayatollah Khamenei [1], ran nearly three dozen articles defaming the Bahá\'í Faith. The articles, which make use of fake historical documents, engage in a distortion of history to falsely describe Bahá\'í moral principles in a manner that would be offensive to Muslims, thus inducing feelings of suspicion, distrust and hatred to members of the Bahá\'í community in Iran. [2].
Furthermore, a confidential letter sent on October 29 2005 by the Chairman of the Command Headquarters of the Armed Forced in Iran states that the Supereme Leader of Iran, Ayatollah Khamenei has instructed the Command Headquarters to identify people who adhere to the Bahá\'í Faith and to monitor their activiters and gather any and all information about the members of the Bahá\'í Faith. The letter was brought to the attention of the international community by Asma Jahangir, the Special Rapporteur of the United Nations Commission on Human Rights on freedom of religion or belief, in a March 20, 2006 press release [3].
In the press release the Special Rapporteur states that she "is highly concerned by information she has received concerning the treatment of members of the Bahá\'í community in Iran." She further states that "The Special Rapporteur is concerned that this latest development indicates that the situation with regard to religious minorities in Iran is, in fact, deteriorating." [4].
Bahá\'ís are also being persecuted in Egypt. [5]
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It has been suggested that this article or section be merged with Freedom of religion in the United States. (Discuss) |
The Latter Day Saint movement and Mormonism have a long history of persecution, beginning with reports by founder Joseph Smith, Jr. immediately after his First VisionJoseph Smith - History 1:20-25 and continuing as the movement grew and migrated from its inception in western New York to Ohio, Missouri, and Illinois, culminating with the martyrdom of Smith at Carthage Jail in 1844 and the subsequent Mormon Exodus. Afterwards, the United States government would pass legislation aimed specifically at Mormons and their practice of polygamy until the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints officially renounced it and Utah was admitted to the Union.
Smith and his followers experienced relatively low levels of persecution in New York and Ohio, although one incident involved Smith being dragged out of his home in the middle of the night and then tarred and feathered. The historian Fawn M. Brodie (No Man Knows, 119) speculated that one of John Johnson\'s sons, Eli, meant to punish Joseph by having him castrated for an intimacy with his sister, Nancy Marinda Johnson, but author Bushman states that hypothesis failed. Bushman feels a more probable motivation is recorded by Symonds Ryder, a participant in the event, who felt Smith was plotting to take property from members of the community and a company of citizens violently warned Smith that they would not accept those actions. They would eventually move on to Missouri, where some of the worst atrocities against Mormons would take place. Smith declared the area around Independence, Missouri to be the site of Zion, inspiring a massive influx of Mormon converts. Locals, alarmed by rumors of the strange, new religion (including rumors of polygamy)[citation needed], attempted to drive the Mormons out. This resulted in the Mormon War, the Haun\'s Mill massacre, and the issue of the infamous Extermination Order by Governor Lilburn Boggshttp://en.wikibooks.orgExtermination_Order_%28Mormonism%29, which ordered all Mormons to leave the state or face extinction. The majority of Mormons would flee to Illinois, where they were received warmly by the village of Commerce, Illinois. The Mormons quickly expanded the town and renamed it Nauvoo, which was one of the largest cities in Illinois at the time.Arrington & Bitton 1992, p. 69 The economic, political, and religious dominance of the Mormons (Smith was mayor and captain of the local militia) inspired mobs to attack the city, and Smith was arrested for destroying the press of an anti-Mormon newspaper, although he acted with the consent of the city council.The Destruction of the "Nauvoo Expositor"—Proceedings of the Nauvoo City Council and Mayor. He was imprisoned, along with his brother Hyrum Smith, at Carthage Jail. They were attacked by a mob of about 200 men and killed.
After a succession crisis, most of the Mormons united under Brigham Young, who organized an evacuation from Nauvoo and from the United States itself after the federal government refused to protect the MormonsSmith, Joseph Fielding (1946-1949). "Church History and Modern Revelation" 4: 167–173. Deseret. . Young and an eventual 50,000-70,000 would cross the Great Plains to settle in the Salt Lake Valley and the surrounding area. After the events of the Mexican-American War, the area became a United States territory. Young immediately petitioned for the addition of the State of Deseret, but the federal government declined, probably because of the great size of the territory, its low population, and the dominance of the Mormons. Instead, Congress carved out the (much smaller) territory of Utah. Over the next 46 years, several acts of Congress were directed at Mormons, specifically to curtail the practice of polygamy and to reduce their political power. These acts included the Morrill Anti-Bigamy Act, Poland Act, and Edmunds-Tucker Act. In 1890, Church President Wilford Woodruff issued the Manifesto, ending polygamy. Since the issue of the Manifesto and Utah\'s admission to the Union in 1896, there has been little physical or political persecution of Mormons within the United States.
The government of People\'s Republic of China in mainland China has banned the spiritual group Falun Gong and has conducted a massive crackdown on the group, including using torture and "re-education" camps to force its adherents to abandon Falun Gong. There are reports indicating that the PRC has engaged in organ harvesting from live Falun Gong adherents, among other human rights abuses.
The trend toward state atheism in Albania was taken to an extreme during the totalitarian regime, when religions, identified as imports foreign to Albanian culture, were banned altogether. This policy was mainly applied and felt within the borders of the present Albanian state, thus producing a nonreligious majority in the population. As the literary monthly "Nëndori" reported, the youth had thus "created the first Atheist nation in the world." From 1967 until the end of the totalitarian regime, religious practices were banned and the country was proclaimed officially Atheist, marking an event that happened for the first time in world history. Albanians born during the regime were never taught religion, so they grew up to become either Atheists or Agnostics.
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It has been suggested that this article or section be merged with Freedom of religion in the United States. (Discuss) |
In modern times, charges of discrimination by the U.S. government against Native Americans continue. These charges have largely centered on the eagle feather law which governs the possession of eagle feathers for religious use, the use of ceremonial peyote, and the repatriation of Native American human remains and cultural and religious objects found in museums and private collections.
The eagle feather law, which governs the possession and religious use of eagle feathers, was officially written to protect then dwindling eagle populations while still protecting traditional Native American spiritual and religious customs, of which the use of eagles is central. The eagle feather law later met charges of promoting racial and religious discrimination due to the law’s provision authorizing the possession of eagle feathers by members of only one ethnic group, Native Americans, and forbidding Native Americans from including non-Native Americans in indigenous customs involving eagle feathers — a common modern practice dating back to the early 1500s.
Peyote, a spineless cactus found in the desert southwest and Mexico, is commonly used in certain traditions of Native American religion and spirituality, most notably in the Native American Church. Prior to the passage of the American Indian Religious Freedom Act (AIRFA) in 1978, and as amended in 1994, the religious use of peyote was not afforded legal protection. This resulted in the arrest of many Native Americans and non-Native Americans participating in traditional indigenous religion and spirituality. Many individuals today encounter harassment and persecution by their employers for ingesting peyote while participating in the Native American Church because the cactus contains the psychotropic drug mescaline, a controlled substance.
Native Americans often hold strong personal and spiritual connections to their ancestors and often believe that their remains should rest undisturbed. This has often placed Native Americans at odds with archaeologists who have often dug on Native American burial grounds and other sites considered sacred, often removing artifacts and human remains – an act considered sacrilegious by many Native Americans. For years, Native American communities decried the removal of ancestral human remains and cultural and religious objects, charging that such activities are acts of genocide, religious persecution, and discrimination. Many Native Americans called on the government, museums, and private collectors for the return of remains and sensitive objects for reburial. The Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act (NAGPRA), which gained passage in 1990, established a means for Native Americans to request the return or "repatriation" of human remains and other sensitive cultural, religious, and funerary items held by federal agencies and federally assisted museums and institutions.
| Discrimination | |
|---|---|
General forms | |
| Ageism · Racism · Religious intolerance · Sexism · Xenophobia | |
Specific forms | |
| Social | Ableism · Adultism · Biphobia · Classism · Elitism · Gerontophobia · Heightism · Heterosexism · Homophobia · Lesbophobia · Lookism · Misandry · Misogyny · Sizeism · Transphobia |
| Against cultures | American · Arab · Armenian · Australian · Canadian · Catalan · Chinese · English · European · French · German · Indian · Iranian · Irish · Italian · Japanese · Jewish · Malay · Mexican · Polish · Portuguese · Quebec · Roma · Romanian · Russian · Scottish · Serb · Spanish · Turkish |
| Against religions | Bahá\'í · Catholicism · Christianity · Hinduism · Judaism · Mormonism · Islam · Protestantism · New religious movements |
Manifestations | |
| Blood libel · Ephebiphobia · Ethnic cleansing · Ethnocide · Gay bashing · Genocide (examples) · Hate crime · Hate speech · Lynching · Paternalism · Pogrom · Race war · Racial profiling · Religious persecution · Slavery · Police brutality | |
Movements | |
| Discriminatory | American Nazi Party · Aryanism · Grey Wolves · Hate groups · Kahanism · Ku Klux Klan · Neo-Nazism · South African National Party · Supremacism |
| Anti-discriminatory | Abolitionism · Autistic rights · Children\'s rights · Civil rights · Disability rights (Inclusion) · Feminism · LGBT rights · Masculism · Men\'sTemplate:\w Fathers\' rights · Women\'sTemplate:\w Universal suffrage · Youth rights · Equalism |
Policies | |
| Discriminatory | Apartheid · Internment · RaceTemplate:\wReligionTemplate:\w Sex segregation · Redlining |
| Anti-discriminatory | Civil rights · Desegregation · Emancipation · Integration · Equal opportunity |
| Counter-discriminatory | Affirmative action · Forced busing · Racial quota · Reparation · Reservation (India) · Employment equity (Canada) |
Law | |
| Discriminatory | Alien and Sedition Acts · Anti-immigration · Anti-miscegenation · Apartheid laws · Black codes · Jim Crow laws · Nuremberg Laws · Ethnocracy |
| Anti-discriminatory | Anti-discrimination acts · Anti-discrimination law · 14th Amendment · Crime of apartheid |
Other forms | |
| Androcentrism · Adultcentrism · Colorism · Cronyism · Economic · Ethnocentrism · Gynocentrism · Linguicism · Nepotism · Triumphalism | |
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